1. Therefore, the electron temperature can be simply measured by using formula 2. For a large voltage compared to the electron temperature , the result is 3. An equilibrium is finally reached when the potential difference is a few times the electron temperature . 4. A common rule of thumb for this voltage bias is 3 / e times the expected electron temperature . 5. In most plasmas of interest, the electron temperature is comparable to or larger than the ion temperature. 6. The relatively low electron temperature makes probe construction straightforward and does not require the use of exotic materials. 7. Without quantitative modeling of the bulk resistivity, Langmuir probes can only give an upper limit on the electron temperature . 8. For this reason, the ion temperature may be very different from ( usually lower than ) the electron temperature . 9. One advantage of ultracold plasmas are their well characterized and tunable initial conditions, including their size and electron temperature . 10. The incoherent scatter signal allows measurement of electron density, ion temperature and electron temperatures , ion composition and plasma velocity.
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